Kamis, 31 Oktober 2013

Part of speech


NAMA                        :           ABRILIANT. Y. MANDAK
JURUSAN                  :           SISTEM INFORMASI
SEMESTER               :           II
 
Part of speech
In grammar, a part of speech (also a word class, a lexical class, or a lexical category) is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely lexical items), which is generally defined by the syntactic or morphological behaviour of the lexical item in question. Common linguistic categories include noun and verb, among others. There are open word classes, which constantly acquire new members, and closed word classes, which acquire new members infrequently if at all.
Almost all languages have the lexical categories noun and verb, but beyond these there are significant variations in different languages.[1] For example, Japanese has as many as three classes of adjectives where English has one; Chinese, Korean and Japanese have nominal classifiers whereas European languages do not; many languages do not have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, adjectives and verbs (see stative verbs) or adjectives and nouns[citation needed], etc. This variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties entails that analysis be done for each individual language. Nevertheless the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.
Contents
History
The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the history of linguistics. In the Nirukta, written in the 5th or 6th century BC, the Sanskrit grammarian Yāska defined four main categories of words
  1. nāma – nouns or substantives
  2. ākhyāta – verbs
  3. upasarga – pre-verbs or prefixes
  4. nipāta – particles, invariant words (perhaps prepositions)
These four were grouped into two large classes: inflected (nouns and verbs) and uninflected (pre-verbs and particles).


The ancient work on the grammar of the Tamil language, Tolkappiyam, dated variously between 1st and 10th centuries AD, classifies words  in Tamil as
  1. peyar (noun),
  2. vinai (verb),
  3. idai (part of speech which modifies the relationships between verbs and nouns) and
  4. uri (word that further qualifies a noun or verb)
A century or two after the work of Nirukta, the Greek scholar Plato wrote in the Cratylus dialog that "... sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs [rhēma] and nouns [ónoma]". Another class, "conjunctions" (covering conjunctions, pronouns, and the article), was later added by Aristotle.
By the end of the 2nd century BC, the classification scheme had been expanded into eight categories, seen in the Art of Grammar (Τέχνη Γραμματική) :
  1. Noun: a part of speech inflected for case, signifying a concrete or abstract entity
  2. Verb: a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone
  3. Participle: a part of speech sharing the features of the verb and the noun
  4. Interjection: a part of speech expressing emotion alone
  5. Pronoun: a part of speech substitutable for a noun and marked for a person
  6. Preposition: a part of speech placed before other words in composition and in syntax
  7. Adverb: a part of speech without inflection, in modification of or in addition to a verb, adjective, clause, sentence, or other adverb
  8. Conjunction: a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation
The Latin grammarian Priscian (fl. 500 AD) modified the above eightfold system, substituting "article" for "interjection". It was not until 1767 that the adjective was taken as a separate class.[6]
Traditional English grammar is patterned after the European tradition above, and is still taught in schools and used in dictionaries. It names eight parts of speech: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and interjection (sometimes called an exclamation).






Controversies
Since the Greek grammar of 2nd century BC, parts of speech have been defined by morphological, syntactic and semantic criteria. However, there is currently no generally agreed-upon classification scheme that can apply to all languages, or even a set of criteria upon which such a scheme should be based.
Linguists recognize that the above list of eight word classes is drastically simplified and artificial. For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded, or not applicable to certain languages.

English
English words have been traditionally classified into eight lexical categories, or parts of speech (and are still done so in most dictionaries):
Noun
any abstract or concrete entity; a person (police officer, Michael), place (coastline, London), thing (necktie, television), idea (happiness), or quality (bravery)
Pronoun
any substitute for a noun or noun phrase
Adjective
any qualifier of a noun
Verb
any action (walk), occurrence (happen), or state of being (be)
Adverb
any qualifier of an adjective, verb, clause, sentence, or other adverb
Preposition
any establisher of relation and syntactic context
Conjunction
any syntactic connector
Interjection
any emotional greeting (or "exclamation")
Although these are the traditional eight English parts of speech, modern linguists have been able to classify English words into even more specific categories and sub-categories based on function.
The four main parts of speech in English, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are labelled form classes as well. This is because prototypical members of each class share the ability to change their form by accepting derivational or inflectional morphemes. The term form is used because it refers literally to the similarities in shape of the word in its pronunciation and spelling for each part of speech.


Part of Speech adalah kategori atau kelompok kata berdasarkan fungsinya di dalam sebuah kalimat. Part of Speech merupakan komponen penting yang harus dipelajari bagi siapa saja yang ingin mahir dalam bahasa Inggris. Part of Speech terdiri dari 8 bagian dan masing-masing bagian akan dijelaskan secara terperinci secara terpisah. Pada topik ini kami hanya akan membahasnya secara umum.
Pembagian Part of Speech
  1. Adjectives
  2. Adverbs
  3. Verbs
  4. Nouns
  5. Pronouns
  6. Prepositions
  7. Conjunctions
  8. Interjections
1. Adjectives
Adjectives adalah kata-kata yang menerangkan kata benda (nouns) atau kata ganti (pronouns). Dalam Bahasa Inggris, Adjectives (kata sifat) dibagi lagi menjadi:
  1. Quality Adjectives
  2. Possessive Adjectives
  3. Demonstrative Adjectives
  4. Interrogative Adjectives
  5. Quantity Adjectives
  6. Numeral Adjectives
  7. Proper Adjectives
  8. Distributive Adjectives
Contoh kalimat Adjectives:
  • You look beautiful. --> Quality
    (Kamu kelihatan cantik)
  • My book is expensive. --> Possessive
    (Buku saya mahal)
  • That book is on the table. --> Demonstrative
    (Buku itu ada di atas meja)
  • Whose book is this? --> Interrogative
    (Buka siapa ini?)
  • Some books are in the drawer. --> Quantity
    (Beberapa buku ada di dalam laci)
  • I have two books. --> Numeral
    (Saya punya 2 buah buku)
  • Nicholas Anelka is French. --> Proper
    (Nicholas Anelka berkebangsaan Perancis)
  • I can read every book in the library. --> Distributive
    (Saya boleh membaca setiap buku di perpustakaan ini)
2. Adverbs
Adverbs adalah kata yang berfungsi untuk memberikan keterangan pada kata kerja, kata sambung, kata depan, kata sifat, kata keterangan lainnya dan keseluruhan kalimat. Adverbs (kata keterangan) ini terbagi atas:
  1. Simple Adverbs
  2. Interrogative Adverbs
  3. Relative Adverbs
Contoh kalimat Adverbs:
  • She is cooking in the kitchen right now. --> Simple
    (Dia sedang memasak sekarang)
  • Where do you live?
    (Dimana kamu tinggal?)
  • This is the hotel where he stays at.
    (Inilah hotelnya dimana dia menginap)
3. Verbs
Verbs (kata kerja) adalah kata yang menunjukkan nama perbuatan yang dilakukan oleh subyek, namun mungkin juga untuk menunjukkan keadaan. Verbs terbagi atas:
  1. Finite Verbs, seperti read, write, grow, sleep, dll
  2. Auxiliary Verbs, seperti is, am, are, was, were, have, can, might, dll
  3. Linking Verbs, seperti look, stay, appear, sound, taste, feel, dll
  4. Transitive Verbs, seperti read, build, write, open, close, dll
  5. Intransitive Verbs, seperti freeze, rise, boild, cry, dll
  6. Regular Verbs, seperti called, visited, phoned, dll
  7. Irregular Verbs, seperti writted, read, spoken, rang, dll
4. Nouns
Nouns (Kata Benda) adalah segala sesuatu yang kita lihat atau dapat kita bicarakan dan yang menunjukkan orang, benda, tempat, tumbuhan, hewan, gagasan dan sebagainya. Nouns terbagi atas:
  1. Concrete Nouns, seperti book, pen, table, chair, dll
  2. Abstract Nouns, seperti happiness, wisdom, sadness, courage, dll




5. Pronouns
ronouns (Kata Ganti) adalah kata yang menggantikan kata benda (nouns). Beberapa kata yang digunakan dalam Pronouns juga digunakan dalam Adjectives, namun berbeda fungsi dan bentuknya. Pronouns terbagi atas:
  1. Personal Pronouns
  2. Demonstrative Pronouns
  3. Possessive Pronouns
  4. Interrogative Pronouns
  5. Relative Pronouns
  6. Indefinite Pronouns
  7. Reflexive Pronouns
  8. Intensive Pronouns
  9. Reciprocal Pronouns
Contoh kalimat Pronouns:
  • I like Sarah. She is a doctor. --> Personal
    (Saya suka dengan Sarah. Dia adalah seorang dokter)
  • Those are my pencils. These are yours. --> Demonstrative
    (Itu adalah pensil-pensil saya. Nah, yang ini pensil-pensil mu)
  • This is my car. That is yours. --> Possessive
    (Ini adalah mobil saya, Nah itu, mobilmu)
  • What is your name? --> Interrogative
    (Siapa nama kamu?)
  • The man who called you is my uncle. --> Relative
    (Laki-laki yang memanggilmu adalah paman saya)
  • Someone knocked at the door. --> Indefinite
    (Seseorang mengetuk pintu)
  • I cut myself with a knife. --> Reflexive
    (Saya kena pisau)
  • Henry himself told me so. --> Intensive
    (Henry sendiri yang bilang begitu)
  • They love each other. --> Reciprocal
    (Mereka saling mencintai)
6. Prepositions
Preposition (Kata Depan) adalah kata yang tidak dapat berubah bentuknya dan biasanya di letakkan di depan kata benda atau padanan kata benda lainnya (objek) yang bertujuan untuk menunjukkan hubungannya tertentu dengan kata-kata lain dalam kalimat. Prepositions terbagi atas:
  1. Simple Prepositions, seperi on, at, to, in, dll
  2. Double Prepositions, seperti into, onto, from under, dll
  3. Compound Prepositions, seperti across, along, behind, about, dll
  4. Participial Prepositions, seperti pending, during, notwithstanding, considering, dll
  5. Prepositional Phrase, seperti because of, by means of, in the name of, by the name of, dll
  6. Disguised Prepositions, seperti o'clock, o'lantern, a-hunting, dll
7. Conjunctions
Salah satu dari part of Speech yang perlu kita pelajari adalah Conjunctions. Conjunctions (Kata Sambung) adalah kata yang digunakan untuk menghubungkan kata-kata, ungkapan atau kalimat dan sebagainya. Conjunctions terbagi atas:
  1. Coordinating Conjunctions
  2. Sub-Ordinating Conjunctions
Contoh kalimat:
  • You and I will go to Bali tomorrow. --> Coordinating 
    (Saya dan kamu akan pergi ke Bali besok)
  • He said that he could pick me up. --> Sub-ordinating
    (Dia berkata bahwa dia bisa menjemput saya)
8. Interjections
Interjection (Kata Seru) adalah suatu bunyi seru yang ditambahkan ke dalam kalimat untuk menunjukkan perasaan atau emosi yang kuat seperti kegembiraan, kesedihan, keterkejutan, persetujuan, keheranan, dsb.
Contoh Kalimat:
  • Hurray! = Hore!
  • Alas! = Aduh! Sayang!
  • Bravo! = Bagus sekali!
  • Hush! = Diam!
  • Bosh! = Omong kosong!
  • Ah! = Aduh!
  • Dear me! = Astaga!
  • For heaven's sake! = Ya Allah!
  • Good heavens! = Masya Allah!
  • Good Lord! = Astaga!
  • Farewell! = Selamat Jalan!
  • Well done! = Bagus sekali!
  • Thank goodness! = Syukurlah!
  • Thank God! = Alhamdulillah!





Neither written nor spoken English generally marks words as belonging to one part of speech or another, as they tend to be understood in the context of the sentence. Words like neigh, break, outlaw, laser, microwave, and telephone might all be either verb forms or nouns. Although -ly is a frequent adverb marker, not all adverbs end in -ly (-wise is another common adverb marker) and not all words ending in -ly are adverbs. For instance, tomorrow, fast, very can all be adverbs, while early, friendly, ugly are all adjectives (though early can also function as an adverb). Verbs can also be used as adjectives (e.g. "The astonished child watched the spectacle unfold" instead of the verb usage "The unfolding spectacle astonished the child"). In such cases, the verb is in its participle form.
In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in "We must look to the how's and not just the why's" or "Miranda was to-ing and fro-ing and not paying attention".
Functional classification
The study of linguistics has expanded the understanding of lexical categories in various languages and allowed for better classifying words by function. Common lexical categories in English by function may include:

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